Bangala is a Bantu language spoken in the northeast corner of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, South Sudan and the extreme western part of Uganda. A divergent form of Lingala, it is used as a lingua franca by people with different languages and rarely as a first language. The estimated number of speakers varies between 2 and 3.5 million.[4] It is spoken to the east and northeast of the area where Lingala is spoken. In Lingala, Bangala translates to 'People of Mongala' this means people living along the Mongala River
History[edit]As Lingala spread east and north, its vocabulary was replaced more and more by tribal and regional languages, and it became more of an interlanguage (a language that is a mix of two or more languages) and was classified as a separate language â Bangala. The vocabulary varies, depending on the first language of the speakers. Around the 1980s, with the popularity and increased availability of Lingala in modern music, young people in large villages and towns began adopting Lingala so much that their Bangala is becoming more of a dialect than a separate language.[5] Characteristics[edit]In Bangala, the words for six and seven (motoba, sambo) are replaced with the Swahili words sita and saba. Many Lingala words are replaced by words in Swahili, Zande, other local languages, plus English (bilizi is derived from the English word bridge) and, of course, French. The verb 'to be' is conjugated differently in Bangala. Below is a comparison with Lingala.
The verb prefix ko-, meaning 'to' in Lingala is instead ku, as it is in Swahili, so 'to be' in Bangala is kusala, not kosala. Many other Bangala words have an /u/ sound where Lingala has an /o/ sound, such as bisu (not biso - 'we') and mutu (not moto - 'person'). References[edit]
External links[edit]
Retrieved from 'https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bangala_language&oldid=889796090'
The Bengali alphabet (Bengali: বাà¦à¦²à¦¾ বরà§à¦£à¦®à¦¾à¦²à¦¾, bangla bôrnômala) or Bengali script (Bengali: বাà¦à¦²à¦¾ লিপি, bangla lipi) is the writing system, originating in the Indian subcontinent, for the Bengali language and is the fifth most widely used writing system in the world. The script is used for other languages like Meithei and Bishnupriya Manipuri, and has historically been used to write Sanskrit within Bengal. From a classificatory point of view, the Bengali script is an abugida, i.e. its vowel graphemes are mainly realised not as independent letters, but as diacritics modifying the vowel inherent in the base letter they are added to. Bengali script is written from left to right and has no distinct letter cases. It is recognisable, as are other Brahmic scripts, by a distinctive horizontal line known as মাতà§à¦°à¦¾matra running along the tops of the letters that links them together. The Bengali script is however less blocky and presents a more sinuous shape.[2][clarification needed]
History[edit]The Bengali script evolved from the Siddham script or kutil lipi, which belongs to the Brahmic family of scripts. In addition to differences in how the letters are pronounced in the different languages, there are some typographical differences between the version of the script used for Assamese language and that used for Bengali language:
The version of the script used for Manipuri is also a different variation; it uses the rô, represented as র in Bengali script without the different representation as in Assamese script. It also uses the Assamese script character sounding wô, represented as ৱ. The Bengali script was originally not associated with any particular language but was often used in the eastern regions of the Middle kingdoms of India and then in the Pala Empire. It later continued to be specifically used in the Bengal region. It was later standardised into the modern Bengali script by Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar under the reign of the East India Company. Today, the script holds official script status in Bangladesh and India, and it is associated with the daily life of Bengalis. Characters[edit]The Bengali script can be divided into vowels and vowel diacritics/marks, consonants and consonant conjuncts, diacritical and other symbols, digits, and punctuation marks. Vowels & consonants are used as alphabet and also as diacritical marks. Vowels[edit]The Bengali script has a total of 9 vowel graphemes, each of which is called a সà§à¦¬à¦°à¦¬à¦°à§à¦£swôrôbôrnô 'vowel letter'. The swôrôbôrnôs represent six of the seven main vowel sounds of Bengali, along with two vowel diphthongs. All of them are used in both Bengali and Assamese languages.
The table below shows the vowels present in the modern (since the late nineteenth century) inventory of the Bengali alphabet:
The consonant ঠ(kô) along with the diacritic form of the vowels à¦
, à¦, à¦, à¦, à¦, à¦, à¦, à¦, à¦, ঠand à¦.
Notes[edit]
Consonants[edit]Consonant letters are called বà§à¦¯à¦à§à¦à¦¨à¦¬à¦°à§à¦£bænjônbôrnô 'consonant letter' in Bengali. The names of the letters are typically just the consonant sound plus the inherent vowel ঠô. Since the inherent vowel is assumed and not written, most letters' names look identical to the letter itself (the name of the letter ঠis itself ghô, not gh).
Notes[edit]
Consonant conjuncts[edit]
The consonant ligature ndrô (নà§à¦¦à§à¦°) : ন (nô) in green, দ (dô) in blue and র (rô) in maroon.
Up to four consonant clusters can be orthographically represented as a typographic ligature called a consonant conjunct (Bengali: যà§à¦à§à¦¤à¦¾à¦à§à¦·à¦°/যà§à¦à§à¦¤à¦¬à¦°à§à¦£juktakkhôr/juktôbôrnô or more specifically যà§à¦à§à¦¤à¦¬à§à¦¯à¦à§à¦à¦¨). Typically, the first consonant in the conjunct is shown above and/or to the left of the following consonants. Many consonants appear in an abbreviated or compressed form when serving as part of a conjunct. Others simply take exceptional forms in conjuncts, bearing little or no resemblance to the base character. Often, consonant conjuncts are not actually pronounced as would be implied by the pronunciation of the individual components. For example, adding লlô underneath শshô in Bengali creates the conjunct শà§à¦², which is not pronounced shlô but slô in Bengali. Many conjuncts represent Sanskrit sounds that were lost centuries before modern Bengali was ever spoken as in à¦à§à¦. It is a combination of ঠǰô and ঠñô but it is not pronounced 'ǰñô' or 'jnô'. Instead, it is pronounced ggô in modern Bengali. Thus, as conjuncts often represent (combinations of) sounds that cannot be easily understood from the components, the following descriptions are concerned only with the construction of the conjunct, and not the resulting pronunciation. (Some graphemes may appear in a form other than the mentioned form due to the font used) Fused forms[edit]Some consonants fuse in such a way that one stroke of the first consonant also serves as a stroke of the next.
Approximated forms[edit]Some consonants are written closer to one another simply to indicate that they are in a conjunct together.
Compressed forms[edit]Some consonants are compressed (and often simplified) when appearing as the first member of a conjunct.
Abbreviated forms[edit]Some consonants are abbreviated when appearing in conjuncts and lose part of their basic shape.
Variant forms[edit]Some consonants have forms that are used regularly but only within conjuncts.
Exceptions[edit]
Certain compounds[edit]When serving as a vowel mark, ঠu, ঠu, and ঠri take on many exceptional forms.
Diacritics and other symbols[edit]These are mainly the Brahmi-Sanskrit diacritics, phones and punctuation marks present in languages with Sanskrit influence or Brahmi-derived scripts.
Notes[edit]
Digits and numerals[edit]The Bengali script has ten numerical digits (graphemes or symbols indicating the numbers from 0 to 9). Bengali numerals have no horizontal headstroke or মাতà§à¦°à¦¾ 'matra'.
Numbers larger than 9 are written in Bengali using a positional base 10 numeral system (the decimal system). A period or dot is used to denote the decimal separator, which separates the integral and the fractional parts of a decimal number. When writing large numbers with many digits, commas are used as delimiters to group digits, indicating the thousand (হাà¦à¦¾à¦° hazar), the hundred thousand or lakh (লাঠlakh or লà¦à§à¦· lôkkhô), and the ten million or hundred lakh or crore (à¦à§à¦à¦¿ koti) units. In other words, leftwards from the decimal separator, the first grouping consists of three digits, and the subsequent groupings always consist of two digits. For example, the English number 17,557,345 will be written in traditional Bengali as ১,à§à§«,৫à§,৩৪৫. Punctuation marks[edit]Bengali punctuation marks, apart from the downstroke দাড়ি dari (।), the Bengali equivalent of a full stop, have been adopted from western scripts and their usage is similar: Commas, semicolons, colons, quotation marks, etc. are the same as in English. Capital letters are absent in the Bengali script so proper names are unmarked. Characteristics of the Bengali text[edit]
An example of handwritten Bengali script. Part of a poem written by Nobel Laureate Rabindranath Tagore in 1926 in Hungary.
Bengali text is written and read horizontally, from left to right. The consonant graphemes and the full form of vowel graphemes fit into an imaginary rectangle of uniform size (uniform width and height). The size of a consonant conjunct, regardless of its complexity, is deliberately maintained the same as that of a single consonant grapheme, so that diacritic vowel forms can be attached to it without any distortion. In a typical Bengali text, orthographic words, words as they are written, can be seen as being separated from each other by an even spacing. Graphemes within a word are also evenly spaced, but that spacing is much narrower than the spacing between words. Unlike in western scripts (Latin, Cyrillic, etc.) for which the letter-forms stand on an invisible baseline, the Bengali letter-forms instead hang from a visible horizontal left-to-right headstroke called মাতà§à¦°à¦¾ matra. The presence and absence of this matra can be important. For example, the letter ত tô and the numeral ৩ '3' are distinguishable only by the presence or absence of the matra, as is the case between the consonant cluster তà§à¦° trô and the independent vowel ঠe. The letter-forms also employ the concepts of letter-width and letter-height (the vertical space between the visible matra and an invisible baseline).
According to Bengali linguist Munier Chowdhury, there are about nine graphemes that are the most frequent in Bengali texts, shown with its percentage of appearance in the adjacent table.[4] Standardization[edit]In the script, clusters of consonants are represented by different and sometimes quite irregular forms; thus, learning to read is complicated by the sheer size of the full set of letters and letter combinations, numbering about 350. While efforts at standardising the alphabet for the Bengali language continue in such notable centres as the Bangla Academy at Dhaka (Bangladesh) and the Pôshchimbônggô Bangla Akademi at Kolkata (West Bengal, India), it is still not quite uniform yet, as many people continue to use various archaic forms of letters, resulting in concurrent forms for the same sounds. Among the various regional variations within this script, only the Assamese and Bengali variations exist today in the formalised system. It seems likely that standardisation of the alphabet will be greatly influenced by the need to typeset it on computers. The large alphabet can be represented, with a great deal of ingenuity, within the ASCII character set, omitting certain irregular conjuncts. Work has been underway since around 2001 to develop Unicodefonts, and it seems likely that it will split into two variants, traditional and modern. In this and other articles on Wikipedia dealing with the Bengali language, a Romanization scheme used by linguists specialising in Bengali phonology is included along with IPA transcription. A recent effort by the Government of West Bengal focused on simplifying the Bengali orthography in primary school texts. There is yet to be a uniform standard collating sequence (sorting order of graphemes to be used in dictionaries, indices, computer sorting programs, etc.) of Bengali graphemes. Experts in both Bangladesh and India are currently working towards a common solution for the problem. Romanization[edit]Romanization of Bengali is the representation of the Bengali language in the Latin script. There are various ways of Romanization systems of Bengali, created in recent years but failed to represent the true Bengali phonetic sound. While different standards for romanisation have been proposed for Bengali, they have not been adopted with the degree of uniformity seen in languages such as Japanese or Sanskrit.[nb 2] The Bengali alphabet has often been included with the group of Brahmic scripts for romanisation in which the true phonetic value of Bengali is never represented. Some of them are the International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration or 'IAST system'[5] 'Indian languages Transliteration' or ITRANS (uses upper case alphabets suited for ASCII keyboards),[6] and the extension of IAST intended for non-Sanskrit languages of the Indian region called the National Library at Kolkata romanisation.[7] Sample texts[edit]Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
Bengali in phonetic Romanization
Bengali in IPA
Gloss
Translation
Unicode[edit]Bengali script was added to the Unicode Standard in October 1991 with the release of version 1.0. The Unicode block for Bengali is U+0980âU+09FF:
See also[edit]
Notes[edit]
References[edit]
Bibliography[edit]
Retrieved from 'https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bengali_alphabet&oldid=899041689'
A series of picture stories narrated in Bengali
Bengali (/bÉÅËÉ¡ÉËli/),[4] also known by its endonymBangla (UK: /ËbÊÅlÉ/; বাà¦à¦²à¦¾), is an Indo-Aryan language primarily spoken by the Bengalis in South Asia. It is the official and most widely spoken language of Bangladesh and second most widely spoken of the 22 scheduled languages of India, behind Hindi. In 2015, 160 million speakers were reported for Bangladesh,[1] and the 2011 Indian census counted another 100 million.[5] With approximately 260â300million total speakers worldwide,[6] Bengali is the 6th most spoken language by number of native speakers and 7th most spoken language by total number of speakers in the world.[7][8] The official and de factonational language of Bangladesh is Modern Standard Bengali (Literary Bengali).[9][10][11] It serves as the lingua franca of the nation, with 98% of Bangladeshis being fluent in Bengali as their first language.[12][13] Within India, Bengali is the official language of the states of West Bengal, Tripura and the Barak Valley in the state of Assam, and is the most widely spoken language in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal,[14] and is spoken by significant populations in other states including in Arunachal Pradesh, Delhi, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland and Uttarakhand.[15] Bengali is also spoken by the significant global Bengali diaspora (Bangladeshi diaspora and Indian Bengalis) communities in Pakistan, the United States, the United Kingdom, the Middle East.[16] Bengali has developed over the course of more than 1,300 years. Bengali literature, with its millennium-old literary history, has extensively developed since the Bengali renaissance and is one of the most prominent and diverse literary traditions in Asia. The Bengali language movement from 1948 to 1956 demanding Bengali to be an official language of Pakistan fostered Bengali nationalism in East Bengal leading to the emergence of Bangladesh in 1971. In 1999, UNESCO recognized 21 February as International Mother Language Day in recognition of the language movement.[17][18] The Bengali language is the quintessential element of Bengali identity and binds together a culturally diverse region.
History[edit]
Silver coin with proto-Bengali script, Harikela Kingdom, circa 9thâ13th century
Ancient language of Bengal[edit]Sanskrit was practiced by the priests in Bengal since the first millennium BCE. But, the local people were speaking in some varieties of Prakrita languages. Dr. Suniti Kumar Chatterjee coined it as 'eastern variety of Magdhi Prakrita'. But, Dr. Muhammad Shahidullah argued that the language spoken by the then Bengalis was distinct from Magdhi Prakrit. He named it 'Purbo Magdhi Prakrita' and explained that it included more non-Indo-Aryan vocabulary. Humayun Azad suggested that Purbo Magdhi Prakrita (defined by Shahidullah) had substantial Dravidian and Austro-Asiatic words. During the Gupta Empire, Bengal was a hub of Sanskrit literature.[19] The Middle Indo-Aryan dialects were influential in Bengal in the first millennium when the region was a part of the Magadha Realm. These dialects were called Magadhi Prakrit spoken in current Bihar state of India. Purbo Magdhi was close to but distinct from Magdhi Prakrita. The Magdhi Prakrita eventually evolved into Ardha Magadhi and become more distinct from the languages of Bengal day by day.[20][21] Ardha Magadhi began to give way to what are called Apabhraá¹Åa languages at the end of the first millennium. Then Bengali language evolved a as distinct language by the course of time.[22] Emergence of Bengali[edit]Along with other Eastern Indo-Aryan languages, Bengali evolved circa 1000â1200 CE from Sanskrit and Magadhi Prakrit.[23] The local Apabhraá¹Åa of the eastern subcontinent, Purbi Apabhraá¹Åa or Abahatta ('Meaningless Sounds'), eventually evolved into regional dialects, which in turn formed three groups of the BengaliâAssamese languages, the Bihari languages, and the Odia language. Some argue that the points of divergence occurred much earlier â going back to even 500,[24] but the language was not static: different varieties coexisted and authors often wrote in multiple dialects in this period. For example, Ardhamagadhi is believed to have evolved into Abahatta around the 6th century, which competed with the ancestor of Bengali for some time.[25] Proto-Bengali was the language of the Pala Empire and the Sena dynasty.[26][27] Middle Bengali[edit]
Silver Taka from the Sultanate of Bengal, circa 1417
During the medieval period, Middle Bengali was characterized by the elision of word-final ঠô, the spread of compound verbs and Arabic and Persian influences. Bengali was an official court language of the Sultanate of Bengal. Muslim rulers promoted the literary development of Bengali.[28] Bengali became the most spoken vernacular language in the Sultanate.[29] This period saw borrowing of Perso-Arabic terms into Bengali vocabulary. Major texts of Middle Bengali (1400â1800) include Chandidas' Shreekrishna Kirtana. Modern Bengali[edit]
The Central Shaheed Minar in Dhaka, Bangladesh
Language Martyr's Memorial at Silchar Railway Station in Assam, India.
The modern literary form of Bengali was developed during the 19th and early 20th centuries based on the dialect spoken in the Nadia region, a west-central Bengali dialect. Bengali presents a strong case of diglossia, with the literary and standard form differing greatly from the colloquial speech of the regions that identify with the language.[30] The modern Bengali vocabulary contains the vocabulary base from Magadhi Prakrit and Pali, also tatsamas and reborrowings from Sanskrit and other major borrowings from Persian, Arabic, Austroasiatic languages and other languages in contact with. During this period,the Letters from iwo jima trailer.
In 1948 the Government of Pakistan tried to impose Urdu as the sole state language in Pakistan, starting the Bengali language movement.[32] The Bengali Language Movement was a popular ethno-linguistic movement in the former East Bengal (today Bangladesh), which was a result of the strong linguistic consciousness of the Bengalis to gain and protect spoken and written Bengali's recognition as a state language of the then Dominion of Pakistan. On the day of 21 February 1952 five students and political activists were killed during protests near the campus of the University of Dhaka. In 1956 Bengali was made a state language of Pakistan.[32] The day has since been observed as Language Movement Day in Bangladesh and is also commemorated as International Mother Language Day by UNESCO every year since 2000. In 2010, the parliament of Bangladesh and the legislative assembly of West Bengal proposed that Bengali be made an official UN language,[33] though no further action was taken on this matter. Geographical distribution[edit]Approximate distribution of native Bengali speakers (assuming a rounded total of 261 million) worldwide.
India (37.2%)
The Bengali language is native to the region of Bengal, which comprises Indian states of West Bengal and the present-day nation of Bangladesh.
A Bengali sign in Brick Lane in London, which is home to a large Bengali diaspora
Besides the native region it is also spoken by the Bengalis living in Tripura, southern Assam and the Bengali population in the Indian union territory of Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Bengali is also spoken in the neighboring states of Odisha, Bihar, and Jharkhand, and sizable minorities of Bengali speakers reside in Indian cities outside Bengal, including Delhi, Mumbai, Varanasi, and Vrindavan. There are also significant Bengali-speaking communities in the Middle East,[34][35][36] the United States,[37]Singapore,[38]Malaysia, Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom, and Italy. Official status[edit]The 3rd article of the Constitution of Bangladesh states Bengali to be the sole official language of Bangladesh.[11] The Bengali Language Implementation Act, 1987 made it mandatory to use Bengali in all records and correspondences, laws, proceedings of court and other legal actions in all courts, government or semi-government offices, and autonomous institutions in Bangladesh.[9] It is also the de factonational language of the country. In India, Bengali is one of the 23 official languages.[39] It is the official language of the Indian states of West Bengal, Tripura and in Barak Valley of Assam.[40][41] Bengali is a second official language of the Indian state of Jharkhand since September 2011. It is also a recognized secondary language in the City of Karachi in Pakistan.[42][43][44] The Department of Bengali in the University of Karachi also offers regular programs of studies at the Bachelors and at the Masters levels for Bengali Literature.[45] The national anthems of both Bangladesh (Amar Sonar Bangla) and India (Jana Gana Mana) were written in Bengali by the Bengali Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore.[46] Additionally, the first two verses of Vande Mataram, a patriotic song written in Bengali by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, was adopted as the 'national song' of India in both the colonial period and later in 1950 in independent India. Furthermore, it is believed by many that the national anthem of Sri Lanka (Sri Lanka Matha) was inspired by a Bengali poem written by Rabindranath Tagore,[47][48][49][50] while some even believe the anthem was originally written in Bengali and then translated into Sinhalese.[51][52][53][54] In 2009, elected representatives in both Bangladesh and West Bengal called for Bengali language to be made an official language of the United Nations.[55] Dialects[edit]Regional variation in spoken Bengali constitutes a dialect continuum. Linguist Suniti Kumar Chattopadhyay grouped these dialects into four large clusters â Rarh, Banga, Kamarupa and Varendra;[56] but many alternative grouping schemes have also been proposed.[57] The south-western dialects (Rarhi or Nadia dialect) form the basis of modern standard colloquial Bengali. In the dialects prevalent in much of eastern and south-eastern Bangladesh (Barisal, Chittagong, Dhaka and Sylhet Divisions of Bangladesh), many of the stops and affricates heard in West Bengal are pronounced as fricatives. Western alveolo-palatal affricatesà¦[tÉÉ], à¦[tÉÊ°É], à¦[dÊÉ] correspond to eastern à¦[tsÉ], à¦[tsÊ°É~sÉ], à¦[dzÉ~zÉ]. The influence of Tibeto-Burman languages on the phonology of Eastern Bengali is seen through the lack of nasalized vowels and an alveolar articulation of what are categorised as the 'cerebral' consonants (as opposed to the postalveolar articulation of West Bengal). Some variants of Bengali, particularly Chittagonian and Chakma, have contrastive tone; differences in the pitch of the speaker's voice can distinguish words. Rangpuri, Kharia Thar and Mal Paharia are closely related to Western Bengali dialects, but are typically classified as separate languages. Similarly, Hajong is considered a separate language, although it shares similarities to Northern Bengali dialects.[58] During the standardization of Bengali in the 19th century and early 20th century, the cultural center of Bengal was in the city of Kolkata, founded by the British. What is accepted as the standard form today in both West Bengal and Bangladesh is based on the West-Central dialect of Nadia District, located next to the border of Bangladesh.[59] There are cases where speakers of Standard Bengali in West Bengal will use a different word from a speaker of Standard Bengali in Bangladesh, even though both words are of native Bengali descent. For example, the word salt is নà§à¦¨nun in the west which corresponds to লবণlôbôn in the east.[60] Spoken and literary varieties[edit]Bengali exhibits diglossia, though some scholars have proposed triglossia or even n-glossia or heteroglossia between the written and spoken forms of the language.[30] Two styles of writing have emerged, involving somewhat different vocabularies and syntax:[59][61]
Linguist Prabhat Ranjan Sarkar, categorizes the language as:
While most writing is in Standard Colloquial Bengali (SCB), spoken dialects exhibit a greater variety. People in southeastern West Bengal, including Kolkata, speak in SCB. Other dialects, with minor variations from Standard Colloquial, are used in other parts of West Bengal and western Bangladesh, such as the Midnapore dialect, characterised by some unique words and constructions. However, a majority in Bangladesh speak in dialects notably different from SCB. Some dialects, particularly those of the Chittagong region, bear only a superficial resemblance to SCB.[63] The dialect in the Chittagong region is least widely understood by the general body of Bengalis.[63] The majority of Bengalis are able to communicate in more than one variety â often, speakers are fluent in Cholitobhasha (SCB) and one or more regional dialects.[31] Even in SCB, the vocabulary may differ according to the speaker's religion: Hindus are more likely to use words derived from Sanskrit whereas Muslims are more likely to use words of Persian and Arabic origin, along with more native words respectively.[64] For example:[60]
Phonology[edit]The phonemic inventory of standard Bengali consists of 29 consonants and 7 vowels, as well as 7 nasalized vowels. The inventory is set out below in the International Phonetic Alphabet (upper grapheme in each box) and romanization (lower grapheme).
Bengali is known for its wide variety of diphthongs, combinations of vowels occurring within the same syllable.[67] Two of these, /oi̯/ and /ou̯/, are the only ones with representation in script, as ঠand ঠrespectively. /e̯ i̯ o̯ u̯/ may all form the glide part of a diphthong. The total number of diphthongs is not established, with bounds at 17 and 31. An incomplete chart is given by Sarkar (1985) of the following:[68]
Stress[edit]In standard Bengali, stress is predominantly initial. Bengali words are virtually all trochaic; the primary stress falls on the initial syllable of the word, while secondary stress often falls on all odd-numbered syllables thereafter, giving strings such as in সহযà§à¦à¦¿à¦¤à¦¾shô-hô-jo-gi-ta 'cooperation', where the boldface represents primary and secondary stress. Consonant clusters[edit]Native Bengali words do not allow initial consonant clusters;[69] the maximum syllabic structure is CVC (i.e. one vowel flanked by a consonant on each side). Many speakers of Bengali restrict their phonology to this pattern, even when using Sanskrit or English borrowings, such as à¦à§à¦°à¦¾à¦®geram (CV.CVC) for à¦à§à¦°à¦¾à¦®gram (CCVC) 'village' or à¦à¦¸à§à¦à§à¦²iskul (VC.CVC) for সà§à¦à§à¦²skul (CCVC) 'school'. Writing system[edit]
An example of handwritten Bengali. Part of a poem written in Bengali (and with its English translation below each Bengali paragraph) by Nobel Laureate Rabindranath Tagore in 1926 in Hungary
The Bengali script is an abugida, a script with letters for consonants, diacritics for vowels, and in which an inherent vowel (ঠô) is assumed for consonants if no vowel is marked.[70] The Bengali alphabet is used throughout Bangladesh and eastern India (Assam, West Bengal, Tripura). The Bengali alphabet is believed to have evolved from a modified Brahmic script around 1000 CE (or 10thâ11th century).[71] Note that despite Bangladesh being majority Muslim, it uses the Bengali alphabet rather than an Arabic-based one like the Shahmukhi script used in Pakistan. The Bengali script is a cursive script with eleven graphemes or signs denoting nine vowels and two diphthongs, and thirty-nine graphemes representing consonants and other modifiers.[71] There are no distinct upper and lower case letter forms. The letters run from left to right and spaces are used to separate orthographic words. Bengali script has a distinctive horizontal line running along the tops of the graphemes that links them together called মাতà§à¦°à¦¾matra.[72] Since the Bengali script is an abugida, its consonant graphemes usually do not represent phonetic segments, but carry an 'inherent' vowel and thus are syllabic in nature. The inherent vowel is usually a back vowel, either [É] as in মত[mÉt̪] 'opinion' or [o], as in মন[mon] 'mind', with variants like the more open [É]. To emphatically represent a consonant sound without any inherent vowel attached to it, a special diacritic, called the hôsôntô(à§), may be added below the basic consonant grapheme (as in মà§[m]). This diacritic, however, is not common, and is chiefly employed as a guide to pronunciation. The abugida nature of Bengali consonant graphemes is not consistent, however. Often, syllable-final consonant graphemes, though not marked by a hôsôntô, may carry no inherent vowel sound (as in the final ন in মন[mon] or the medial ম in à¦à¦¾à¦®à¦²à¦¾[É¡amla]). A consonant sound followed by some vowel sound other than the inherent [É] is orthographically realized by using a variety of vowel allographs above, below, before, after, or around the consonant sign, thus forming the ubiquitous consonant-vowel typographic ligatures. These allographs, called à¦à¦¾à¦°kar, are diacritical vowel forms and cannot stand on their own. For example, the graph মি[mi] represents the consonant [m] followed by the vowel [i], where [i] is represented as the diacritical allographি (called à¦-à¦à¦¾à¦°i-kar) and is placed before the default consonant sign. Similarly, the graphs মা[ma], মà§[mi], মà§[mu], মà§[mu], মà§[mri], মà§[me~mæ], মà§[moj], মà§[mo] and মà§[mow] represent the same consonant ম combined with seven other vowels and two diphthongs. In these consonant-vowel ligatures, the so-called 'inherent' vowel [É] is first expunged from the consonant before adding the vowel, but this intermediate expulsion of the inherent vowel is not indicated in any visual manner on the basic consonant sign ম[mÉ]. The vowel graphemes in Bengali can take two forms: the independent form found in the basic inventory of the script and the dependent, abridged, allograph form (as discussed above). To represent a vowel in isolation from any preceding or following consonant, the independent form of the vowel is used. For example, in মà¦[moj] 'ladder' and in à¦à¦²à¦¿à¦¶[iliÉ] 'Hilsa fish', the independent form of the vowel ঠis used (cf. the dependent formি). A vowel at the beginning of a word is always realized using its independent form. In addition to the inherent-vowel-suppressing hôsôntô, three more diacritics are commonly used in Bengali. These are the superposed chôndrôbindu(à¦), denoting a suprasegmental for nasalization of vowels (as in à¦à¦¾à¦à¦¦[tÉãd] 'moon'), the postposed ônusbar(à¦) indicating the velar nasal[Å] (as in বাà¦à¦²à¦¾[baÅla] 'Bengali') and the postposed bisôrgô(à¦) indicating the voiceless glottal fricative[h] (as in à¦à¦![uh] 'ouch!') or the gemination of the following consonant (as in দà§à¦à¦[dukÊ°ËÉ] 'sorrow'). The Bengali consonant clusters (যà§à¦à§à¦¤à¦¬à§à¦¯à¦à§à¦à¦¨juktôbênjôn) are usually realized as ligatures, where the consonant which comes first is put on top of or to the left of the one that immediately follows. In these ligatures, the shapes of the constituent consonant signs are often contracted and sometimes even distorted beyond recognition. In the Bengali writing system, there are nearly 285 such ligatures denoting consonant clusters. Although there exist a few visual formulas to construct some of these ligatures, many of them have to be learned by rote. Recently, in a bid to lessen this burden on young learners, efforts have been made by educational institutions in the two main Bengali-speaking regions (West Bengal and Bangladesh) to address the opaque nature of many consonant clusters, and as a result, modern Bengali textbooks are beginning to contain more and more 'transparent' graphical forms of consonant clusters, in which the constituent consonants of a cluster are readily apparent from the graphical form. However, since this change is not as widespread and is not being followed as uniformly in the rest of the Bengali printed literature, today's Bengali-learning children will possibly have to learn to recognize both the new 'transparent' and the old 'opaque' forms, which ultimately amounts to an increase in learning burden. Bengali punctuation marks, apart from the downstroke ।daá¹i â the Bengali equivalent of a full stop â have been adopted from western scripts and their usage is similar.[56] Unlike in western scripts (Latin, Cyrillic, etc.) where the letter-forms stand on an invisible baseline, the Bengali letter-forms instead hang from a visible horizontal left-to-right headstroke called মাতà§à¦°à¦¾matra. The presence and absence of this matra can be important. For example, the letter তtô and the numeral ৩ '3' are distinguishable only by the presence or absence of the matra, as is the case between the consonant cluster তà§à¦°trô and the independent vowel à¦e. The letter-forms also employ the concepts of letter-width and letter-height (the vertical space between the visible matra and an invisible baseline). There is yet to be a uniform standard collating sequence (sorting order of graphemes to be used in dictionaries, indices, computer sorting programs, etc.) of Bengali graphemes. Experts in both Bangladesh and India are currently working towards a common solution for this problem. Orthographic depth[edit]The Bengali script in general has a comparatively shallow orthography, i.e., in most cases there is a one-to-one correspondence between the sounds (phonemes) and the letters (graphemes) of Bengali. But grapheme-phoneme inconsistencies do occur in certain cases. One kind of inconsistency is due to the presence of several letters in the script for the same sound. In spite of some modifications in the 19th century, the Bengali spelling system continues to be based on the one used for Sanskrit,[56] and thus does not take into account some sound mergers that have occurred in the spoken language. For example, there are three letters (শ, ষ, and স) for the voiceless alveolo-palatal sibilant[É], although the letter স retains the voiceless alveolar sibilant[s] sound when used in certain consonant conjuncts as in সà§à¦à¦²à¦¨[skÊ°ÉlÉn] 'fall', সà§à¦ªà¦¨à§à¦¦à¦¨[spÉndÉn] 'beat', etc. The letter ষ also retains the voiceless retroflex sibilant[Ê] sound when used in certain consonant conjuncts as in à¦à¦·à§à¦[kÉÊÊÉ] 'suffering', à¦à§à¦·à§à¦ à§[É¡oÊÊÊ°i] 'clan', etc. Similarly, there are two letters (ঠand য) for the voiced alveolo-palatal affricate[dÊ]. Moreover, what was once pronounced and written as a retroflex nasal ণ[ɳ] is now pronounced as an alveolar [n] when in conversation (the difference is heard when reading) (unless conjoined with another retroflex consonant such as à¦, ঠ, ড and ঢ), although the spelling does not reflect this change. The near-open front unrounded vowel[æ] is orthographically realized by multiple means, as seen in the following examples: à¦à¦¤[ætÉ] 'so much', à¦à§à¦¯à¦¾à¦à¦¾à¦¡à§à¦®à§[ækademi] 'academy', ঠà§à¦¯à¦¾à¦®à¦¿à¦¬à¦¾[æmiba] 'amoeba', দà§à¦à¦¾[dækÊ°a] 'to see', বà§à¦¯à¦¸à§à¦¤[bæstÉ] 'busy', বà§à¦¯à¦¾à¦à¦°à¦£[bækÉrÉn] 'grammar'. Another kind of inconsistency is concerned with the incomplete coverage of phonological information in the script. The inherent vowel attached to every consonant can be either [É] or [o] depending on vowel harmony (সà§à¦¬à¦°à¦¸à¦à§à¦à¦¤à¦¿) with the preceding or following vowel or on the context, but this phonological information is not captured by the script, creating ambiguity for the reader. Furthermore, the inherent vowel is often not pronounced at the end of a syllable, as in à¦à¦®[kÉm] 'less', but this omission is not generally reflected in the script, making it difficult for the new reader. Many consonant clusters have different sounds than their constituent consonants. For example, the combination of the consonants à¦à§[k] and ষ[Ê] is graphically realized as à¦à§à¦· and is pronounced [kkÊ°É] (as in রà§à¦à§à¦·[rukkÊ°É] 'coarse') or [kkÊ°o] (as in à¦à§à¦·à¦¤à¦¿[kkÊ°ot̪i] 'harm') or even [kkÊ°É] (as in à¦à§à¦·à¦®à¦¤à¦¾[kkÊ°ÉmÉt̪a] 'capability'), depending on the position of the cluster in a word. The Bengali writing system is, therefore, not always a true guide to pronunciation. Uses[edit]The script used for Bengali, Assamese and other languages is known as Bengali script. The script is known as the Bengali alphabet for Bengali and its dialects and the Assamese alphabet for Assamese language with some minor variations. Other related languages in the nearby region also make use of the Bengali alphabet like the Meitei language in the Indian state of Manipur, where the Meitei language has been written in the Bengali alphabet for centuries, though the Meitei script has been promoted in recent times. Romanisation[edit]There are various ways of Romanisation systems of Bengali created in recent years which have failed to represent the true Bengali phonetic sound. The Bengali alphabet has often been included with the group of Brahmic scripts for romanisation where the true phonetic value of Bengali is never represented. Some of them are the International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration or IAST system (based on diacritics),[73] 'Indian languages Transliteration' or ITRANS (uses upper case letters suited for ASCII keyboards),[74] and the National Library at Kolkata romanization.[75] In the context of Bengali romanisation, it is important to distinguish transliteration from transcription. Transliteration is orthographically accurate (i.e. the original spelling can be recovered), whereas transcription is phonetically accurate (the pronunciation can be reproduced). Although it might be desirable to use a transliteration scheme where the original Bengali orthography is recoverable from the Latin text, Bengali words are currently Romanized on Wikipedia using a phonemic transcription, where the true phonetic pronunciation of Bengali is represented with no reference to how it is written. The most recent attempt has been by publishers Mitra and Ghosh with the launch of three popular children's books, Abol Tabol, Hasi Khusi and Sahoj Path in Roman script at the Kolkata Book Fair 2018. Published under the imprint of Benglish Books, these are based on phonetic transliteration and closely follow spellings used in social media but for using an underline to describe soft consonants. Grammar[edit]Bengali nouns are not assigned gender, which leads to minimal changing of adjectives (inflection). However, nouns and pronouns are moderately declined (altered depending on their function in a sentence) into four cases while verbs are heavily conjugated, and the verbs do not change form depending on the gender of the nouns. Word order[edit]As a head-final language, Bengali follows subjectâobjectâverbword order, although variations to this theme are common.[76] Bengali makes use of postpositions, as opposed to the prepositions used in English and other European languages. Determiners follow the noun, while numerals, adjectives, and possessors precede the noun.[77] Yes-no questions do not require any change to the basic word order; instead, the low (L) tone of the final syllable in the utterance is replaced with a falling (HL) tone. Additionally, optional particles (e.g. à¦à¦¿-ki, না-na, etc.) are often encliticized onto the first or last word of a yes-no question. Wh-questions are formed by fronting the wh-word to focus position, which is typically the first or second word in the utterance. Nouns[edit]Nouns and pronouns are inflected for case, including nominative, objective, genitive (possessive), and locative.[22] The case marking pattern for each noun being inflected depends on the noun's degree of animacy. When a definite article such as -à¦à¦¾-á¹a (singular) or -à¦à§à¦²à§-gulo (plural) is added, as in the tables below, nouns are also inflected for number. Translate English To Bangla LanguageIn most of the Bengali grammar books, cases are divided in to 6 categories and an additional possessive case (possessive form is not recognized as a type of case by Bengali grammarian). But in term of usages, cases are generally grouped in to only 4 categories.
When counted, nouns take one of a small set of measure words. Nouns in Bengali (Japanese is similar in this respect) cannot be counted by adding the numeral directly adjacent to the noun. An appropriate measure word (MW) must be used between the numeral and the noun. Most nouns take the generic measure word -à¦à¦¾-á¹a, though other measure words indicate semantic classes (e.g. -à¦à¦¨-jôn for humans). There is also the classifier -khana, and its diminutive form -khani, which attach only to nouns denoting something flat, long, square, or thin. These are the least common of the classifiers.[78]
Measuring nouns in Bengali without their corresponding measure words (e.g. à¦à¦ বিড়ালaá¹ biá¹al instead of à¦à¦à¦à¦¾ বিড়ালaá¹-á¹a biá¹al 'eight cats') would typically be considered ungrammatical. However, when the semantic class of the noun is understood from the measure word, the noun is often omitted and only the measure word is used, e.g. শà§à¦§à§ à¦à¦à¦à¦¨ থাà¦à¦¬à§à¥¤Shudhu êk-jôn thakbe. (lit. 'Only one-MW will remain.') would be understood to mean 'Only one person will remain.', given the semantic class implicit in -à¦à¦¨-jôn. In this sense, all nouns in Bengali, unlike most other Indo-European languages, are similar to mass nouns. Verbs[edit]There are two classes of verbs: finite and non-finite. Non-finite verbs have no inflection for tense or person, while finite verbs are fully inflected for person (first, second, third), tense (present, past, future), aspect (simple, perfect, progressive), and honor (intimate, familiar, and formal), but not for number. Conditional, imperative, and other special inflections for mood can replace the tense and aspect suffixes. The number of inflections on many verb roots can total more than 200. Inflectional suffixes in the morphology of Bengali vary from region to region, along with minor differences in syntax. Bengali differs from most Indo-Aryan Languages in the zero copula, where the copula or connective be is often missing in the present tense.[56] Thus, 'he is a teacher' is সৠশিà¦à§à¦·à¦se shikkhôk, (literally 'he teacher').[79] In this respect, Bengali is similar to Russian and Hungarian. Romani grammar is also the closest to Bengali grammar.[80] Vocabulary[edit]Sources of modern literary Bengali words
67% native
8% indigenous and foreign loans
Bengali has as many as 100,000 separate words, of which 50,000 are considered Tadbhavas, 21,100 are Tatsamas and the remainder loanwords from Austroasiatic and other foreign languages. However, these figures do not take into account the large proportion of archaic or highly technical words that are very rarely used. Furthermore, different dialects use more Persian and Arabic vocabulary especially in different areas of Bangladesh and Muslim majority areas of West Bengal. Hindus, on the other hand, use more Sanskrit vocabulary than Muslims. While standard Bengali is based on the Nadia dialect of spoken in the Hindu majority states of West Bengal, about 90% of Bengalis in Bangladesh (ca. 148 million) and 27% of Bengalis in West Bengal and 10% in Assam (ca. 36 million) are Muslim and speak a more 'persio-arabised' version of Bengali instead of the more Sanskrit influenced Standard Nadia dialect. The productive vocabulary used in modern literary works, in fact, is made up mostly (67%) of tadbhavas, while tatsamas comprise only 25% of the total.[81][82] Loanwords from non-Indic languages comprise the remaining 8% of the vocabulary used in modern Bengali literature. Dictionaries from the early 20th century attributed about 65% of the Bengali vocabulary to native words (i.e., naturally modified Prakrit words, corrupted forms of Aryan words, and Native Austro-Asiatic e.g. Munda). About 25% percent of Bengali words are unmodified Sanskrit, and the remaining words are from Persian, Arabic, Turkish, English, Portuguese, French, and other languages.[83] Dominant in the last group was Persian, which was also the source of some grammatical forms. More recent studies suggest that the use of native and foreign words has been increasing, mainly because of the preference of Bengali speakers for the colloquial style.[83]Because of centuries of contact with Europeans, Turkic peoples, and Persians, Bengali has absorbed numerous words from foreign languages, often totally integrating these borrowings into the core vocabulary. The most common borrowings from foreign languages come from three different kinds of contact. After close contact with several indigenous Austroasiatic languages,[84][85][86][87] and later the Mughal invasion whose court language was Persian, numerous Chagatai, Arabic, and Persian words were absorbed into the lexicon.[32] Later, East Asian travelers and lately European colonialism brought words from Portuguese, French, Dutch, and most significantly English during the colonial period. Sample text[edit]The following is a sample text in Bengali of Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights: Bengali in the Bengali alphabet
Bengali in phonetic Romanization Dave and busters unlimited card. ⢠Get our Emails Never miss another great coupon.
Bengali in the International Phonetic Alphabet
Gloss
Translation
See also[edit]Notes[edit]
References[edit]
Further reading[edit]
External links[edit]
Retrieved from 'https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bengali_language&oldid=898447075'
Bangladesh, as the name suggests, speaks Bengali or Bangla. It is the de facto national language of the country. Bengali is also the official language of Bangladesh and serves as the nationâs lingua franca. The country also has several indigenous languages that are spoken by the different indigenous groups living in the country. English is often regarded as the de facto co-official language of the country. The Official Language Of BangladeshBengali is both the official and the national language of Bangladesh. Bengali is the worldâs seventh most spoken native language. The language belongs to the Indo-Aryan language family but its vocabulary is also influenced by languages of the Austroasiatic, the Dravidian, and the Tibeto-Burman language families. Bengali acts as a binding force between the two separated Bengali communities living in Bangladesh and India. The national anthems of both Bangladesh and India were composed in Bengali. Bengali literature and folk heritage are well known across the world for their rich quality. In Bangladesh, 98% of Bangladeshis speak Standard Bengali or one of the many Bengali dialects fluently as their first language. The Aryan Languages Spoken In BangladeshThe Aryan languages are spoken mainly in the lowlands of Bangladesh. The Bengali language is also an Aryan language and the most widely spoken language of this class in the country. There are several other Eastern Indic languages spoken here which might be treated as dialects of Bengali or as separate languages themselves. These are: Bishnupriya The Aryan language is spoken in some parts of northeastern India, Burma, and Bangladesh. It is spoken in the Sylhet region of Bangladesh. Bishnupriya is written with the Bengali alphabet. Chakma The Chakma language is spoken by Chakma and the Daingnet people. About 310,000 Bangladeshis living near Chittagong City of southeastern Bangladesh and 300,000 people living in northeastern India speak this language. The languages use the Chakma script for writing. Chittagonian The Chittagonian language is spoken widely in the southeast of Bangladesh, especially in Chittagong. Although the Bengali and Chittagonian are not mutually intelligible, the latter is often treated as a nonstandard dialect of the former. Chittagonian is spoken by about 13 million people in Bangladesh. Hajong The Hajong language is spoken in parts of northeastern India and in the Mymensingh District of Bangladesh. The language is written in the Latin and the Assamese script. Rohingya Rohingya is the dominant language spoken in the Arakan State of Burma but is also spoken by refugees from Burma in Bangladesh. It is regarded as one of the main immigrant languages of Bangladesh. Sylheti Sylheti is spoken by the Sylheti people inhabiting Bangladeshâs Sylhet Division. This language is also spoken in parts of northeastern India. Some consider the language to be a dialect of Bengali while others treat it as a distinct language since they lack mutual intelligibility. However, the languages share about 80% vocabulary. Most Sylhetis can also speak Bengali. Tangchangya Closely related to Bengali, this language is spoken by the countryâs Tanchangya people. Rangpuri The Rangpuri language is spoken by about 10 million Rajbongshi people in Bangladesh. Many of these people are bilingual and also speak either Bengali or Assamese. Others Assamese, Oraon Sadri, and Bihari are some other Aryan languages spoken in Bangladesh. Bihari is spoken in Bangladesh mainly by the Muslim refugees from Indiaâs Bihar state. The Non-Aryan Languages Spoken In BangladeshAustroasiatic Languages Of BangladeshSmaller languages of the Austroasiatic family of languages are spoken in Bangladesh and some parts of India. Here is a list of these languages: Khasi Khasi is the major language of Indiaâs Meghalaya state and is spoken by the Khasi people living here. It is also spoken by a significant number of people in Assam and Bangladesh. In Bangladesh, it is spoken near the border areas of the country with India. Koda Koda is an endangered language spoken in some parts of Bangladesh and India. As of 2005, there were 1,300 speakers of the Koda language in Bangladeshâs Rajshahi Division. Mundari Bangla Language TranslatorA Munda language, Mundari is spoken by people in parts of eastern India, Nepal, and Bangladesh. In Bangladesh, it is spoken by the Munda tribal people. Pnar Pnar is another language of the Austroasiatic family that is spoken in parts of India and Bangladesh. Santali The language is spoken by about 6.2 million people in India, Nepal, Bhutan, and Bangladesh. War-Jaintia This language is spoken by about 26,000 Indians and 16,000 people living in Bangladesh. Dravidian Languages Spoken In BangladeshIndigenous communities living in the western parts of Bangladesh speak two Dravidian languages, Kurukh and Sauria Paharia. Kurukh Nearly 50,000 people in northern Bangladesh speak the Kurukh language. The language is also spoken in parts of India, Nepal, and Bhutan. The UNESCO's list of endangered languages classifies the language as âendangered.â Paharia/Malto Malto, a Northern Dravidian language that is spoken in East India is also spoken by small pockets of population in Bangladesh. Tibeto-Burman Languages Spoken In BangladeshThe communities speaking the Tibeto-Burman Languages live in the eastern, northern, and southeastern parts of the country. Some of these languages include the Chak, A'Tong, Koch, Garo, Megam, Pangkhua, Tripuri languages, Chin languages, Rakhine/Marma, Mru, etc. Immigrant Languages Spoken In BangladeshBihari, Burmese, and Rohingya are treated as the main immigrant languages spoken in Bangladesh. Bihari is spoken mostly by the Muslim refugee community from Indiaâs Bihar state. Burmese and Rohingya are spoken by the refugees from neighboring Burma. Foreign Languages Spoken In BangladeshEven though English has no official status in Bangladesh, the language is frequently used in government administration, educational institutions, courts, business, and media of the country. There is high demand for English education in the country as knowledge in the language is considered to broaden the scope of employment opportunities available to the youth of the nation. What Languages Are Spoken In Bangladesh?
By Oishimaya Sen Nag
On WorldAtlas.com More in Society
Retrieved from 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Bengali_language'
Comments are closed.
|